Present Status of
Japanese Nanotechnology Efforts
by
Tanya Sienko
Sumitomo 3M
Corporate Development Lab
[email protected]
This is a draft paper
for a talk at the
Fifth
Foresight Conference on Molecular Nanotechnology.
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Introduction
Japanese nanotechnology as it is now proceeding is almost
completely the outgrowth of work in semiconductor processing
(nanostructures) and micromachines. "Nanotechnology" is
taken to refer at present to the construction of nanostructures
on semiconductors and other inorganic surfaces. At present, the
semiconductor-inorganic efforts are driven mainly by the
consortia (government and business) investigating future
technology for computers. Japan is also seeing the rapid
development of equipment for use at the nanometer level (STMs and
AFMs) and its integration into the research laboratory.
An overview of Japan's Science and Technology organizations
Science Policy Organizations and Research Plans
The Council of Science and Technology (CST) provides general
advice to the Prime Minister's Office on basic science policy,
establishes long-term research goals, and formulates guidelines
for the research supported by the various agencies and
ministries. CST is considered to be by far the most influential
advisory body on science and technology policy. In 1983 the CST
created a permanent Committee on Policy Matters consisting of
fourteen experts who monitor and evaluate new trends in
technology and the natural sciences. Every year, prior to
finalization of the national budget, the Committee identifies
important issues related to science and technology and prepares a
set of guidelines for Science and Technology Promotion.'These
guidelines are considered by ministries and agencies when they
come to draw up their budgets.
The Committee on Policy Matters has sub-committees on policy
studies, research evaluations, and research projects. The latter
sub-committee supervises the Special Co- ordination Fund for
Promoting Science and Technology. CST uses this fund to make
substantial adjustments to the research funding patterns of
individual ministries and agencies. In addition, the CST
sometimes develops its own policies in specific areas of science
and technology which involve a number of different ministries and
agencies. (Ex: the Human Frontiers Program)
The Prime Minister's Office receives advice from the Science
Council of Japan, as well as science policy advice on specific
research areas from eight other bodies which plan overall policy
and co-ordinate the activities of government institutions
concerned with their respective fields.
The role of STA in Science Policy
Although the Science and
Technology Agency supposedly has responsibility for ensuring
that co-ordination and balance are achieved in all non-Mombusho
supported science and technology research, in practice it has
difficulty in doing so due to the more powerful ministries
competing for control of particular areas of science and
technology. In any case, each agency and ministry is responsible
for its own science and technology program, and receives advice
from various bodies associated with each organization. (Mombusho
is advised by a Science Council, a University Council, and the
Geodesy Council. MITI
receives advice on policy and programmes from the Industrial
Technology Council; the Ministry
of Posts and Telecommunications (MPT) has the
Telecommunications Council, etc.)
How Science Policy Actually is Created
In spite of the aforementioned policy structure which would
seem to indicate a micromanaging of research policy, concrete
proposals for individual research projects actually are generated
in a much more "bottom-up" fashion. Usually one or a
few well-known researchers has the beginning idea and takes it to
the parent organization. This is then "investigated"
unofficially through "study groups" (benkyou- kai)
which incorporate people from industry, government, and academia
and act both as opportunities to brainstorm and to provide
criticism. At a certain point the plan crystalizes, is written
down, and starts on the route of trickling up and down through
the bureaucracy to be accepted or rejected. At present,
"nanotechnology" is not considered to be an
"important" technology which is under consideration by
any of the major policy bodies. Nor is it considered an area the
progress of which should be tracked, although this has been
changing. As mentioned, "nanotechnology" is considered
equivalent with nanostructures (usually on semiconductors and
other inorganic materials), with the tracking of research in this
area being quite adequately carried out by companies.
Nanostructure research
Nanostructure research in Japan is occurring for the most part
under MITI and for the most part with the idea of developing
future-generation computer chips. Japan is undertaking a massive
amount of research in areas related to advanced computer chip
technology. Informed sources estimate that there are probably
more advanced materials fabrication systems in just both NTT
Atsugi laboratories and Fujitu's Quantum Electron Devices
Laboratory than in the whole of Europe. Japan's other electronic
giants--Hitachi, Matsushita, Mitsubishi,NEC, Sony, Sumitomo
Electric and Toshiba--are also working on quantum devices, as
well as smaller companies. At the same time, Japan's corporate
counterparts in the US and Europe have either scaled back their
activities (Bell Labs) or left the field altogether (IBM,
Bellcore, Philips.) In addition, research conferences in Japan on
semiconductor devices and materials feature long sessions devoted
to techniques for the fabrication of extremely small structures,
with such sessions seemingly rare elsewhere outside Japan.
Japan's argument is as follows: at some point the conventional
semiconductor technology based on silicon is going to reach its
limit. As more and more memory is packed into future generations
of DRAMS, the width of circuit lines will continue to
decrease--to the point that quantum effects become paramount.
Electrons start to tunnel at random, leading to "leaky"
devices. As researchers in the field see it, if quantum effects
like tunneling present problems, then quantum devices that
exploit these effects can be a solution. Hence the interest in
resonant tunneling devices, Coulomb effect devices, and the
entire family of "quantum effect devices."
Coulomb Effect Devices
The "Coulomb effect" and all of the related
phenomena (Coulomb staircase, etc.) are due to the discreteness
of charge and the fact that electrons repel each other. In
nanoscale tunnel junction systems formed of two leads and one or
more "islands" between them modulated by gates, a fully
developed "Coulomb gap" arises which can be exploited
to control a current by means of a single charge on a gate and to
transfer single charges from one island to another in a
controlled way. Such devices exploit the feedback effect of the
Coulomb interaction energy of a charge with other charges in the
system. More generally, this feedback effect characterizes what
we call single charge tunneling (SCT) phenomena. Much of the
fascination of single charge tunneling devices from the idea that
in the future, a single bit in an information flow might possibly
be represented by a single electron. At present, all of the large
Japanese electronics corporations are working on so-called Single
Electron Transistors (SET) and their uses. Part of the appeal in
SETs is that present day lithographic technology is sufficient to
create the devices, although one major roadblock has been the
necessity to work at low temperatures (milli-Kelvin range), which
has kept SETs in the laboratory.
On the other hand, a group at Tsukuba's Electrotechnical Laboratory [ETL-aps] has been able to produce
devices that demonstrate a Coulomb staircase signature at room
temperature. This was possible due to the narrow width of the
lines in the circuits. The bulk of the circuit was built using
standard photolithography techniques, with the last two contacts
being etched with a Scanning Tunnelling Microscope. If parallel
STMs can be built--an objective of many research groups around
the world--this could lead to a useable manufacturing process.
Consortia--Who is doing what, and why
Ironically for all of the fury and panic engendered in the
U.S. by Japan's Fifth Generation Computer project, it has been
the U.S. response in the form of Sematech and its touted success
which has sparked off in Japan in return a renewed determination
to not be left behind. There are many players in the field--the
large electrical companies as well as several of the ministries,
all linking together to form a variety of consortia. At present
the consortia structure in Japan is multi-layered, with the
technology under investigation being qualified by its
distribution along a 2-D grid structure. One of the axes of the
grid would refer to at what point in the process from raw
material to fabricated device the technology is used. The other
axis would refer to how speculative and "futuristic"
before the technology becomes available. Hence, Japan has layers
of consortia, depending mainly on when the technology is expected
to become available. As time goes by, it is expected that the
more speculative technology will be shifted
"down-stream" into the more near-term consortia.
The original consortium was the SIRIJ Semiconductor Industry
Research Institute Japan, founded in 1994. This is a think-tank
put together by Japanese industry in an attempt to "find a
road-map for the future", given a) the U.S.'s remarkable
rebound in the chip market and b) the intense activity of Korea
and other "little dragons" in this area. When SEMATECH
came out with their 300 mm wafer project and asked for
international participation, Japan declined. They preferred to
set up the following: 1) Advanced Semiconductor Technologies Inc.
(AST), which has been renamed SELETE (SEmiconductor Leading Edge
Tech., Inc.). Ten major Japanese semiconductor manufacturers
(Fujitsu, Hitachi, Matsushita Electric, Mitsubishi Electric, NEC,
Oki, Sanyo, Sharp, Sony, and Toshiba) established in early
February 1996 SELETE as a joint venture company to share the
R&D costs for 12-inch wafer manufacturing equipment and
materials. SELETE, envisioned as a 10-year effort, will spend
about 35 billion yen for R&D within the next five years, and
will gather at least 100 researchers from member companies. Part
of Hitachi's Production Engineering Research Laboratory in
Yokohama will be used for research, with a clean room being
constructed there for further R&D work. Interestingly enough,
semiconductor manufacturers will not get financial support from
the Ministry of International Trade and Industry for SELETE, in
order to "keep some freedom (from government
'guidence')", While all members of the new company belong
also to SIRIJ, SIRIJ's activities are focused more on next-next
generation technology. Supposedly SIRIJ had sought to oversee
more advanced research efforts in SELETE, but observers say they
were turned down by Japanese government agencies, which wanted to
retain control over the work. R&D efforts at SELETE are
targeted towards the more immediate "next generation
technology" areas, such as development of TCAD software,
which seeks to forge tighter links between the manufacturing and
design processes. In an attempt to create more links between
universities and industry (an area which has been sadly neglected
in Japan in the semiconductor area), another consortium which has
just been started up is the Semiconductor Technology Academic
Research Center (STARC),which has issued its first round of
contracts to university researchers, as it begins its mission of
linking corporate and academic researchers, much like the
Semiconductor Research Corp. in the U.S.. Here, STARC is taking
advantage of the revised regulations from the Ministry of
Education, which now allow companies to provide research funds to
universities directly (previously forbidden.) A total of 94
applications were received for the FY96 awards; the winners were:
Osaka University's Prof. Taniguchi, for development of advanced
oxidation and diffusion processes, as well as computer
simulations; Prof. Komiyama of Tokyo University, for design
optimization of ULSI CVD applications, using computer-aided
chemical reaction design techniques; Prof. Iwata of Hiroshima
University, for development of high-functionality mixed- signal
(analog/digital) LSI technology; Toyohashi University's Prof.
Imai, for a study of hardware/software design methodology for
sub-quarter-micron designs; and Prof. Ishikawa of Tokyo
University for development of super vision chips.[consort],[consort2]
The above consortia are all private. The Ministry of
International Trade and Industry has entered the game with its
ASET (Association of Super-Advanced Electronics Technologies)
consortium. To confuse matters further, the usual suspects
(Toshiba et al) are also members of this consortium, which is
being managed under MITI's New Energy Development Organization.
ASET will handle one of MITI's five-year large-scale R&D
projects covering three fields: gigabit-class ULSI circuits,
next-generation liquid crystal displays and alternative
flat-panel display technologies; and very high density data
storage technologies. According to the timeline, SELETE (Also
called the Japan 300I project) is involved with the development
of chips up to 1G. The NEDO projects are involved with technology
maturing during the 2001-2006 time period (1-4G chips) and are
more speculative. Another consortium, more specialized, is the
Parallel Distributed Processing Research Consortium (PDPRC)
formed in October 1995. PDPRC, brings together 21 universities
and 10 major electronic companies (again the usual suspects) in a
partnership that seeks to establish industry standards. By the
turn of the century, the consortium will spend some 1 billion
(half contributed by participating companies, half from the
Ministry of Education) in research and development activities.
These will focus on two main development projects: high-speed
main processor units and operating systems for parallel
computers, as well as dedicated languages for distributed
processing.[kikaishinkou]
Government Projects in Nanostructure Research
At this point we turn to a review of the governmental projects
which can be considered directly related to nanostructure
research. The three agencies or ministries which have related
projects are MITI, STA, and the university-based research under
Mombusho. Several of MITI'S Industrial Science and Technology
Frontier Program (ISTF)[ISTF]
existing projects fall into the class of research on future chip
technology, while STA has the ERATO projects, which will be
covered afterwards.
Background of MITI's ISTF projects
In 1981 MITI inaugurated a system of budget sponsoring for the
"Research and Development of Basic Technologies for Future
Industries"(JISEDAI program), which aimed to develop
revolutionary technologies essential to the establishment of new
industries. The objective fields covered new materials,
biotechnology, and new electronic devices, and as of April 1988,
14 themes were under way.
Several of the projects were still in the planning stages when
MITI decided to incorporate them into the Industrial Science and
Technology Frontier Program, started under MITI's newly formed
New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization
(NEDO)
The ISTF projects deal with research in either obviously
important areas (Non-linear Photonics Materials, for example), or
leading- edge technology. Each project lasts for 3 to 12 years,
and receives anywhere from $2 million to $200 million of funding.
For each of the individual projects of the program, there exists
a public/governmental partner and a private partner, usually a
consortium set up by private industry.
The idea has been to attempt to push a) leading edge research
and b) the fusion together of researchers from academia,
industry, and government laboratories. Different projects have
had relative levels of success along these lines--JRCAT (see
below) has been the most successful at incorporating researchers
from all three sectors working together in the same laboratories,
while other projects have either had researchers remain at their
individual laboratories with sharing the research, or a
relatively limited form of personnel exchange. During interviews
with managers of the other ISTF projects, the bureaucratic
difficulties involved in incorporating researchers from academia
were often mentioned. At present, there is a feeling that
although the system is starting to change, it will be several
years before researchers from academia will be involved to the
same extent as researchers from the other two sectors.
Nanostructure-related ISTF projects
Quantum Functional Devices (1991- 2000)
- private sector partner: Research and Development
Association for Future Electron Devices
- public sector partner: Electrotechnical
Laboratory
This project is working on the design and fabrication of
highly functional quantum devices as well as integrated circuits
based on such. So far, results have been a) the fabrication of
TiOx quantum wires of 18nm width using a scanning tunneling
microscope, and b) proposal and basic operation of several kinds
of quantum functional transistors.
Bioelectronic Devices
This project has just been completed. The idea was to analyze
essential principles followed in learning, memorization, and
pattern recognition in biological nerve systems. Based on this, a
new technology was developed which realized special functions
such as placticity, operations, and multi-input/output
characteristics by means of self- assemblies of organic
molecules. Spinoffs expected from the research project are the
development of new types of information processing schemes and in
the future the development of a "bio-computer"
Femtosecond technology project (1995- 2004)
This is a project for ultrafast information processing and
communication technology through better understanding of physical
phenomena in the femtosecond range. Projects are as follows: a)
research on an ultrafast femtosecond laser- -technology for
realizing the ultimate short optical pulse in a wide wavelength
range, b) research on femtosecond materials science--technology
for measuring and manipulating ultrafast phenomena in materials,
c) research on femtosecond electronics--basic technology for
realizing ultrafast and large-scale information processing and
communication, and d) research on femtosecond system
technology--application technologies utilizing femtosecond
technology, including ultrafast measurement, environmental
measurement, and medical applications.
Ultimate Manipulation of Atoms and Molecules (1992-2001)
The purpose of R&D is to develop technology for exactly
observing and identifying atoms or molecules, and arranging them
in a desired layout. In combination with mechanical probe
techniques and beam techniques, the new technology allows the
identification, observation, measurement and manipulation of
atoms and molecules on the surface of various materials, organic
molecules such as DNA, and atomic assembly in free space. R&D
of simulation technology will also be pursued to exactly predict
atomic and molecular processes. In JYF 1994, it was found
possible to manipulate structures down to the atomic level by
means of magnetic fields. This suggests the possibility of
creating new materials through the control of materials'
structures at atomic and molecular levels.
This last project is the most "nanotechnological"
project at present, although it has been insisted that the main
idea is the manipulation of individual atoms with an eye towards
creating materials with new properties. The original impetus for
the project was a small band of researchers at Tsukuba's Electrotechnical Laboratory
(ETL), who approached MITI with the concept which then found
interested partners in the private sector. (Supposedly the ETL
researchers' ideas were sparked by Dr. Aono's Atomcraft project
carried out under ERATO.)
Original plans were for this to be one of the
"large-scale" projects run under MITI, but with the
development of the ISTF program, the decision was made to
incorporate it as one of the ISTF projects. MITI seems to be very
insistent on attempting to bring together national laboratories,
academia, and the private sector. This project has the Angstrom
Technology Partnership as the private sector partner, and the
National Institute for Advanced Interdisciplinary Research (NAIR)
as the public sector partner. Both have come together to form the
Joint Research Center for Atom
Technology (JRCAT) to carry out the above- mentioned
research. Although universities are not officially associated
with the project, several of the researchers are graduate
students (mainly from Tsukuba University)or professors working
half-time at national laboratories. The research groups involved
are the same as those in NAIR
(See JRCAT research results below for complete list)
A list of targets to achieve by the final date (2001) include
(intermediate goals in parentheses):
- (Control of Local Surface Reactions)--> Manipulation
of Atoms/Molecules
- (Control of Subnanometer Structures) --> Control of
Bulk Properties
- (Observation and Control of Growing Surfaces) -->
Formation of Superstructures
- (Control of Reactions in Atom Clusters) --> Formation
of Nanometer Structures
- (Observation of Molecules)--> Molecular Fabrication
- (Simulation Based on First Principle Calculations) -->
Reaction System Simulation
A list of the individual members of the Angstrom Technology
Partnership (private partners) shows all of the larger Japanese
semiconductor companies, as well as a few of the US and Korean
ones. Perhaps the most interesting partner is Molecular
Simulations, Inc. (formerly Biosym), which is a US company known
for its simulation software, particularly for biotechnology and
pharmaceutical development.
Intermediate Results reported from JRCAT
JRCAT has now reached the half-way point in its 10-year
project. The first phase of the project terminated after the
intermediate evaluation at the end of fiscal 1997, with the
second phase starting in fiscal 1998. The second phase is to
focus its research on the following four subjects:
- Observation and Manipulation of Atoms and Molecules,
- Nano-structure Formation in Semiconductors
- Spin Electronics
- Quantum Simulations for Atomic and Molecular Processes.
Below are listed the nanotechnology-related results from each
of the different groups [JRCAT].
Measurement and Control of Atomic Level Structures by
Mechanical Probes [Tokumoto Group]
The prime objective of this group is to identify chemical
species of atoms and molecules on a solid surface, for reasons of
either observation or manipulation. In order to attain this goal,
efforts have been concentrated on developing a multitude of
instruments and techniques, including a composite STM/AFM system
for measuring surface force and elastic modulus at
atomic/molecular levels as well as the interaction of tunneling
electrons with light and microwave. Also developed were a
composite STM/AP (atom probe) system to do chemical analysis for
atoms picked up by a STM probe, a cross-sectional STM system to
locate the spacial position of impurities in compound
semiconductors, a composite SNOM/spectrometer system to determine
local optical properties to identify molecular species, a
magnetically controlled AFM system to determine precisely the
interaction between a probe atom and a surface atom (measurement
of local elastic modulus and force spectroscopy), and a
microwave-STM system to measure non- linearity between a probe
and a sample. Supposedly the composite STM/AP and magnetically
controlled AFM system are the first time in the world such
applications have been developed.
The composite STM/AP first of all a) observes surface atoms b)
picks up selected atoms at the probe tip by using the field
emission effect, and c) identify the atoms using mass
spectroscopy.
The validity of this technique was checked by investigating
atoms picked up off of clean silicon and deuterium-capped
silicon. Immediate applications are for studies on
silicide-forming processes, which is currently one of the most
urgent problems in the field of Si-ULSI.
The magnetically-controlled AFM system is a remodeled version
of a commercially available UHV-AFM system, with a small
permanent magnet installed at he cantilever tip underside of the
probe and a small electromagnet coil placed around it. The
stiffness of the cantilever can be increased by controlling the
coil current. This technique is expected to be applicable to
understanding the mechanism of atomic image observation with
UHV-AFM and to in situ characterization of properties of
biopolymers such as DNA in an aqueous solution.
Observation and Formation of Atomic Scale Structures Using
Beam Technology [Ichikawa Group]
This group was able to develop a mask technology in which
atomic-layer SiO film (< 1 nm thickness) is selectively
desorbed using a focused electron beam. They were able to create
10 nm-wide germanium wires using this technique. They were also
able to develop a nanostructure formation technology using
self-organization on the surface of silicon.
Measurement and Control of Surface Reactions for
Nanostructure Fabrication [Ozeki Group]
(This group spent most of its time looking at growth processes
on semiconductors.)
Atomic Level Analysis and Control of II-VI Semiconductor
Surfaces [Yao Group]
Nanotechnology-related research results were mainly the
development of In Situ characterization techniques for the
Surface/Interface using reflectance difference spectroscopy
(RDS), beam-locking reflection high energy electron diffraction,
and in situ chemical anaolysis of surface layer elements through
total relection angle X-ray spectroscopy (TRAXS).
Exploration of Transition Metal Oxides and Organic Molecular
Systems [Tokura Group]
The work done by this group focused on various perovskite-
type manganese oxides and conductive organic radical salts.
Nanotechnologists may be interested in that the target in using
organic radical salts is to create a conducting molecular
ferromagnet.
Exploration of Amorphous Semiconductors, Magnetic Thin Films,
Solid-Liquid Interfaces [Tanaka Group]
This group studied the dynamic process of structure formation
and physical properties at the level of atoms and molecules in
three different systems: (1) fabrication of semiconductor
nanostructures and investigation of defect structure, (2)
magnetic thin films and (3) electric double layers at the
solid-liquid interface.
Formation and Control of Clusters in an Ion Trap and on Solid
Surfaces[Kanayama Group]
This research group is researching the building up of
nanostructure using clusters or atomic assemblies of definite
structures as units for structure formation. The ultimate goal is
to establish formation technology of nanostructures with atomic
precision by utilizing self- organizing processes of clusters.
The first phase has dealt with the development of basic
technologies required for attaining this target.
The first section of research dealt with the development of
techniques for trapping and growing cluster ions, next was
growing hydrogenated Si clusters in the ion trap, the third
section was using metal clusters on a solid surface as templates
for etching masks. Finally, this group used fullerene films for
electron beam nanolithography.
Organic Molecular Structure [Okada Group]
This group was able to quantitively determine the length of
DNA molecules using an AFM. Also developed was a method to
identify protein-binding sites on a single molecule of DNA and
determining the base sequence at that site. The group also is
working on developing a photonic method for detecting and
identifying single biomolecules, with an eye towards ultra-fast
DNA sequencing.
Quantum Simulation of Atomic and Molecular Processes [Theory
Group]
(The Theory group consists of three subgroups covering 1)
semiconductors and surfaces, 2) transition metal oxids, and 3)
exotic materials.) Nothing obviously nanotechnological was
mentioned.
Final Comments on ISTF
None of the above ISTF programs should be considered to be on
the level of the Fifth- Generation Computer project. MITI at
present seems to have two areas of great interest at present:
micromachines, and future computer chip technology. In both cases
large scale projects are being carried out like MITI's ISTF
Program "R&D of Micromachine Technology" and
various consortia for researching future leading edge computer
technology, as mentioned above. Both of these are in areas of
which there is an obvious market need and (also) obvious
applications.
At the same time, looking over lists of what is being done and
what is considered to become possible with micromachines--such as
manipulation of DNA using micromachines--one cannot help but feel
that a lot of the technological predictions that in the U.S. and
Europe are associated with the development of nanotechnology are
here in Japan linked with the development of micromachines. In
fact, the U.S. is starting to see the uses of micromachines as
"intermediate steps" and auxiliary equipment for
nanotechnology development. (In this context, mention should be
made of the Nanotechnology Conference held in San Diego, Dec
8-9th, 1996, where one talk linked quite explicitly the use of
micromachines and nanotechnology development.)
STA nanostructure research
The Science and Technology Agency is involved in more long-
term and basic science research. Most nanostructure research
under STA has already occured [Sasaki Quantum Device project,
Aono Atomcraft project] under the aegis of the ERATO projects,
which are now being devoted more and more to biotechnology.
ERATO projects are
5 year projects, each with a total budget of 1.5-2.0 billion
(US$14-18 million). Although labeled as
"interdisciplinary," each project focuses on one
research topic, under one well-known research scientist. ERATO is
more a mechanism for top-class, young researchers to concentrate
on particular research areas than an institute by itself, since
research is carried out in rented labs in universities,
government labs, and industry.[ERATO]
ERATO nanostructure research
The Yamamoto Quantum Fluctuation Project[Yamamoto], underway at Stanford
University and the NTT Basic Research Laboratory, can be said to
cover many different areas related to using quantum effects in
next-generation devices. Areas under research are: Quantum
Measurements and Quantum Computers, Squeezing of electrons in
quantum wells and lower- dimensional structures, Cavity
QED,Mesoscopic quantum physics, and Microscopy and atom
manipulation.
Of interest for nanotechnologists is the following: the use of
an STM tip as tweezers to create a low-dimensional electronic
structure, [leading towards so-called Atomic Chain electronics,
for which a patent is pending] and the extension of the strain
induced growth of InAs quantum dots vertically by layering the
quantum dots into an ordered 3-D structure, separating them by
spacer layers of GAAs. Here, the vertical aligning of InAs
islands is the result of an energy balance between interface free
energy terms and the lattice mismatch-induced strain energy.
Also of related interest is this group's work on AFM design
and measurements of the mechanical characteristics of GaAs AFM
microcantilevers.
Takayanagi Particle Surface Project [1994-1999]
This project focuses on the surface of well-defined particules
containing several hundreds to several thousands of atoms, and
research their atomic structures and mesoscopic properties in
relationship to their nanoscale sizes. The Basic Structure Group
has developed a new UHV high-resolution electron microscope. So
far they have done a systematic structural analysis of nested
carbon fullerenes, carbon onions, and three-horned nested
fullerenes with negative curvature. [The Quantum Property Group
is mainly computer-calculations, while the Design and Synthesis
Group has not reported much besides their development of
time-of-flight mass spectrometers, and "other instruments
which can generate particle surfaces of suitable size and
structure."]
NRIM is yet another of the STA laboratories, and seems to have
quite a lot of STM-related work, although it is difficult to
track down by the Web. One laboratory, the so-called Atomic
Scale Phenomena Unit is working in Nano-scale line
fabrication, self-assembly of molecules, and other STM-related
work.
RIKEN (Institute of Physical and Chemical Research) is another
research organization under STA. Known for its international
flavor and interdisciplinary flair, three of its laboratories out
of the 20 are noted for their nanotechnology slant: Laboratory
for Nano- Electronics materials, Laboratory for
Nano-photonic-materials, and Laboratory for Exotic
Nano-materials. So far, research seems to have been geared
towards construction and characterization of quantum device
structures. [RIKEN]
RIKEN projects which are related to nanotechnology research
are under its Frontier
Materials Research Program:
- Laboratory for Nano-Electronics Materials (T. Sugano,
Head)
- Characterization and Control of Surface and
Interface Processes
- Nano-processing
- Electrical Properties of Nano-electronics
Materials
- Optical Properties of Nano-electronics Materials
- Development of Nano-electronics Materials and
Nanostructures Research to Device Applications
- Laboratory for Nano-Photonics Materials (H. Sasabe)
- Creation of QW Structures of Low-dimensional
Conjugated Compounds
- Elucidation of Dynamic Behaviors in Excited
States by Ultrafast Spectroscopy
- Study on Photorefractive Index Change in
Photonics Materials
- 2D Crystallization of Photoresponsive Proteins
and Physical Properties
- Creation of Optical Neural Networks with
Self-Feedback Function
Perhaps the laboratory of most interest to nanotechnologists
is the following:
- Laboratory for Exotic Nano-Materials (W. Knoll)
- Studies of Nanoscopic Fabrication
- Studies of Nanoscopic Characterization
- Studies of Nanoscopic Modification
- Studies of High Resolution Electron Microscopy
"The laboratory conducts fundamental research and
development of the fabrication, characterization,
functionalization and manipulation at a nano- scopic/molecular
level of novel organic/polymeric, biological, and inorganic
(metal, semiconductor,ceramic) materials . The aim is to obtain a
better understanding of the physical and chemical principles
underlying the preparation, performance and stability
ofartificial supramolecular architectures. The
structure-property- function relationof purposefully designed
molecular assemblies is to be evaluated by means of nano-tools
such as electron microscopy (EM), scanning tunneling microscopy
(STM), scanning near-field optical microscopy (SNOM) and atomic
force microscopy (AFM) as well as nano-spectroscopic techniques.
"[Knoll] [This group mentions
their development of a neuron-silicon junction, using Organic
Molecular Beam Epitaxy [OMBE]]
We call it nanotech but Japan doesn't
This section covers research which in Japan is not considered
"nanotechnology" but which falls under the U.S.
definition of the term, such as self-assembling lattices, more
biotechnological research, and fullerene work. Moving away from
nanostructure work, we next look at Japanese research with carbon
materials and fullerenes. Work in this area is being done mainly
under a few ERATO projects (just completed), and university
research (Ministry of Education).
ERATO projects
Nagayama Protein Array Project [ERATO project, 1990-1995]
This project was attempted to establish a universal technology
for fabricating two-demensional protein arroys. They were able to
create a new fabrication method allowing for the self-assembly of
proteins and other colloidal particles in films. Of interest to
the nanotechnologist is their ability to create 2D crystals with
different symmetries (hexagonal, tetragonal, and oblique lattices
of ferretin) through tailoring interprotein interactions by
introducng mutations on the protein surfaces.
Itaya Electrochemiscopy Project [ERATO project, 1992-1997]
This uses new in situ techniques to investigate
electrochemistry on the atomic and moleuclar scales. One of the
most important achievements of this group has been the
development of an electrochemical STM. The main focus has been on
the electrode/electrolyte interface and the ability to take
observations in situ during the etching process. Prior work
concentrated on developing techniques to produce extremely
well-defined, atomically flat surfaces of metals and
semiconductors. Recently this group was able to do the first
clear visualization of organic molecule adlayers at a
solid/liquid interface.
Yokoyama CytoLogic Project[ERATO 1996-2001]
"The cell manipulates biological information carried by
biomolecules such as nucleic acids and proteins in a very
sophisticaed manner, and therefore can be viewed as a type of
computer....This project is investigating the cell's
infromation-processing system in order to learn more about how it
works, how it can be modified, and how its features can be used
in artificial information-processing systems...." (Projects
mentioned):"Molecular Devices; by drawing on knowledge of
the cell's information-processing systems, it should be possible
to create new molecular devices and new logic systems. These
engineered molecules will be included in "artificial
cells", and can perform a parallel computing at the
molecular level."
Japanese work in fullerenes
ISTF projects[MITI]
Frontier Carbon Technology (1996 onwards)
Buckyballs, buckytubes, and buckyplate. Development of basic
technologies for synthesis, characterization, and application of
new carbon materials. Determining which technologies need
intensive development, and determining targets for specific
applications.
ERATO projects: (I have already mentioned the Takayanagi
Particle Surface Project, which dealt with fullerenes.)
Yoshimura Pi-Electron Materials [1991-1996]
Nanotech-related research results were: a) the synthesis of
non-benzenoid graphite (buckyplate), b) carbon nanotube formation
at relatively low temperatures[600 degrees C],and c)intercalation
into carbon nanotubes.
There also exists a sizable number of university-based
research groups. A good
list [English] exists covering these groups although many of
the sites mentioned seem to take one to Japanese home pages.
Maybe neither of us call it nanotechnology
Japan also has a large number of projects, government or
otherwise, which deal with the creation of new materials
described down to the nanometer level. Since the number of
possible projects which could conceivably fall into this category
is very large, I simply run through the ISTF projects, as being
those which will probably spark the most attention abroad:
ISTF Projects-Other New Material Projects
Technology for Novel High-Functional Materials ( FY1996-FY
2001
Here, the purpose of the project is to investigate the
generation of extremely high performance an highly functional
materials through better techniques of synthesizing materials.
Also as a target is to developing spin-off technology by learning
how to precisely control the structure and process of an organic
high-weight polymer or a molecular assembly at the molecular
level.
- New Bio-mimetic Materials. The target is to develop
materials which will respond to outside stimuli or which
through "cooperative effects" can mimic
biological materials.
- Structure Control and Synthetic Process Technology. In
order to create new functional and high performance
polymeric materials, precision polymerization technology
is developed to precisely control the molecular and
super- molecular structure of polymers such as molecular
weight distribution, stereo-regularity, monomer sequence,
and three-dimensional structure.
Synergy Ceramics: (1994 onwards, first phase 5 years)
The idea is to simultaneously control structural elements at
diverse scale levels in order to"Synergy Ceramics": a
new family of advanced ceramics in which various widly different
properties are integrated in thesame material. One example is
controlling grain growth by preferential growth of seed
particles, as well as orientation of seed particles by Tape
Casting Lamination. Silicon Nitride formed in such a manner
demonstrates the same values of thermal conductivity as brass.
Development of New Measuring Devices
One area where Japan may prove to be an extremely strong
player is in the development of new instrumentation which can
work at the nano-meter scale. Aside from the many different
varieties of STM and AFM which Japan has developed, there is also
the beginnings of a wide number of instruments created to work at
the micrometer scale, the experience of which may prove useful to
nanotechnology development later on.
I have already mentioned above the new instrumentation
developed at JRCAT. There exist a bewildering variety of SNOMs,
STMs, and AFMs developed by different groups, although most of
these are still not available commercially. My previous article
mentioned Wada's work at Hitachi in developing the combination of
an electron microscope and a STM together to monitor exactly what
is occurring under the tip of the STM needle. Another interesting
example, arising from work in biotechnology, is the following:
Development of Intermolecular Force Microscopy
This was part of the Yanagida Biomotron Project [Yanagida], done as one of the
ERATO projects .[1992-1997] The instrument developed is a
variation on the standard AFM, using much more sensitive
cantilever probes, allowing for sub-piconeuton measurement. Since
flexible probes fluctuate vigorously due to Brownian motion, it
was essential to develop a novel technique to keep the position
of the probes constant. Light pressure from a laser diode,
modulated by feedback from the probe, is used to control the
position of the probe. The fluctuations can be reduced down to
0.8 nm. Researchers using this probe were able to trap single
protein molecules and measure the interaction between single
molecules of myosin mounted on the head of the probe and actin
filaments.
Also, the system was able to be used to measure electrostatic
repulsion forces of less than a piconewton, as well as similar
hydrophobic interactions in water.
Tabletop factories et al.
I already mentioned in my last talk Tokyo University's
Institute of Industrial Science project, the so-called
"table-top factory" project, which is an attempt to
create a micromachine factory. Other information, also related to
Japan's micromachine development, can be found at the MMC site.
(Note: For those who are interested, the WWW site for the International Field Emission
Society (IFES) is located in Japan at NRIM.
Comments on present Japanese bio- nanotechnology
Since from one point of view all chemistry is simply
inefficient nanotechnology, it is slightly more difficult to draw
lines and know what to include as nanotechnology when dealing
with biotechnology. It should be emphasized that Japan still has
not yet made the biotech/nanotechnology link. Partly this is due
to the heavy advance it is felt that the US has in biotechnology,
and partly because Japanese biotechnology efforts prefer to
concentrate on areas they feel they have existing strengths in,
such as enzymes, food processing, and microorganisms. Although
some work has been done on protein lattices and functional
protein analysis, the developing biotech/nanotech/information
link which I reported on two years ago at the last Foresight
conference seems to have fallen apart into two completely
different areas: biosensors and neural computers work. Research
in the former area is being done (various companies, RCAST) with
an eye towards applications for pollution monitoring and food
processing; the latter is research toward AI and is being carried
out for the most part by RIKEN.
Conclusions
The present Japanese conception of "futuristic
technology" may be said to consider biotechnology, the
construction of new materials, and the realization of artificial
intelligence as its main goals. Biotechnology still remains
separate from nanotechnology efforts. Over the last two years,
certain areas of interdisciplinary research linking biotechnology
and electronics which could have lead further towards the
development of nanotechnology in the Drexlerian sense have
fragmented into separate sub-disciplines. On the other hand,
Japan is well along the path of developing enabling technologies
such as micromachines and instrumentation. Also, such a technique
avoids the mistake of putting all one's eggs in one basket in an
attempt to go towards any one definite goal.
Part of the difficulty is due to the confusion between
"nanostructure" and "nanotechnology", and
part is due to how Japan tends to handle research. Although there
exists a feeling of unease in Japan about its lack of basic
research, for the most part the research system is set up to
handle applied research. Culturally, as well, Japan has
traditionally been a country which has imported the seeds of new
technologies from other countries and then refined and improved
them to the point where they are commercially viable. On the
whole, Japan feels uncomfortable in the position of being the
front-runner when it comes to areas of basic research and will
hesitate to fund such, unless it is pulled along by a mavarick
researcher who strongly feels in the project. As it now stands,
"nanotechnology" in Japan means
"nanostructure", which is expected to lead the way
towards the next generation of computer chips. In other areas,
Japan is still waiting, and keeping an eye on the U.S. If a few
more breakthroughs occur in nanotechnology, or if we start to see
an obvious strategy towards the development of an assembler,
there is no doubt to my mind that we will see a great deal of
attention paid by MITI and other Japanese organizations.
Bibliography
- [ETL-aps]
- App Phys Let Vol 68, 1 Jan 96, pp 34-36 "Room
temperature operation of a single electron transistor
made by the scanning tunneling microscope nano-oxidation
process for the TiO=x/Ti system" by K.Matsumoto, M.
Ishii, et al.
- [consort]
- article
by Peter N. Dunn - size 8K - 5 Jun 96
- [consort2]
- (article
on consortiums, 29/7/96
- [kikaishinkou]
- "Future projects in Japanese semiconductor
research"(in Japanese)
- [ISTF]
- Information in this section was based on pamphlet by
Japan Industrial Technology Association "Industrial
Science and Technology Frontier Program"; also
interviews and brochures from the individual projects
- [JRCAT]
- "JRCAT research results 1991-1996", JRCAT
- [ERATO]
- Information in this section was based on the individual
ERATO project reports.(1996-1997) Also, once a year
symposia are held to release results to the public.
(Abstracts of presentations in Japanese)
- [Yamamoto]
- Yamamoto
WWW site
- [Knoll] (Go to RIKEN Home page, follow
pointers to Frontier Research Program)
- [Yanagida]
- ERATO pamphlet, Symposium 1996 proceedings
"Abstracts of Presentations"
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